Kimchi Recipes
163 recipes. Page 4 of 7
Kimchi is Korea's iconic fermented food, and there are dozens of varieties beyond the familiar napa cabbage version - cubed radish (kkakdugi), ponytail radish (chonggak), green onion (pa-kimchi), and young radish (yeolmu), to name a few. Jangajji (Korean pickles) are made by preserving vegetables in soy sauce, vinegar, or gochujang.
Kaburazushi (Koji-Fermented Turnip and Yellowtail)
Kaburazushi places salt-cured yellowtail inside salt-cured turnips and matures the layered pieces with sweet rice koji, carrot, yuzu peel, chili, and cured turnip leaves, yielding 24 portions. This home method does not instruct the cook to cure raw yellowtail with an improvised salt ratio. Buy commercially prepared fish and turnips from an authorized seller under refrigeration, check their use-by dates, and reject swollen packages or products with an uncertain cold chain. Cook 360 g rice and cool it to about 60 C. Mix it in a sanitized vessel with 200 g rice koji and 400 ml boiling water, hold the mixture near 50 C for 8 hours, and cool the sweet koji promptly. Dry the cured turnips and cut a pocket into each thick round without slicing through. Briefly rinse and dry the cured yellowtail, cut it to fit, and insert one piece per pocket. In a sanitized, completely dry food-safe vessel, repeat layers of sweet koji, filled turnip, 100 g carrot, 2 seeded chilies, and 15 g yuzu peel with its white pith removed. Cover the top with 200 g cured turnip leaves and add a clean drop lid and weight. Mature at or below 4 C for 7 to 10 days, checking the vessel and aroma every day. If putrid odor, mold, abnormal gas, or slime appears, do not taste the batch; discard all of it. Because the fish remains unheated, pregnant people, older adults, young children, and immunocompromised diners should avoid a home-fermented batch.
Kaki-zuke Persimmon Daikon Pickle
Kaki-zuke is a southern Akita pickle that cures whole daikon with a remarkably large amount of astringent persimmon, salt, and sugar for about a month. Kumoshikari persimmons grown in household gardens around Kakunodate shifted from fresh eating to drying and pickling, and families packed them after the autumn farm work, later carving the radish like flowers for New Year guests. Reproducing that long cure at uncontrolled household temperature and acidity is unsafe. This conservative version scales it to one tenth, heat-treats the persimmon puree, adds 5 percent acidity vinegar, verifies pH 4. 2 or below, and performs every curing stage at 4°C or colder.
Korean Fermented Kale Kimchi
Kale kimchi is made by wilting kale leaves in coarse salt, then tossing them with julienned radish, scallions, gochugaru, soup soy sauce, and pear puree before fermenting. The kale's strong green flavor mellows during fermentation while its sturdy leaf structure maintains a satisfying chew, and the radish strips add a crisp counterpoint to the soft seasoning. Pear puree wraps around the chili heat with fruit sweetness, and soup soy sauce anchors the seasoning with a quiet umami depth. Made using the same technique as napa cabbage kimchi but carrying kale's distinctive slight bitterness, this version adds a layer of complexity and nutritional density to the traditional format. Kale requires less salting time than napa cabbage, and weighting it down evenly during the process ensures consistent wilting throughout the batch.
Traditional Kimjang Cabbage Kimchi
Traditional Kimjang Cabbage Kimchi is a staple winter preparation made by seasoning salted cabbage with various vegetables and spices. The recipe calls for coating julienned radish with chili flakes first to secure a deep red color before mixing in anchovy fish sauce, fermented shrimp, and minced garlic. Fresh mustard greens and water parsley are cut and folded in, adding crisp and slightly bitter herbal notes to the mixture. Rinsed fresh oysters can be optionally folded in at the end to add a refreshing oceanic flavor. Each cabbage leaf is packed with this seasoning mixture and wrapped securely with its outer leaves. The seasoned cabbage is pressed tightly into airtight containers to minimize air contact, fermented at room temperature for one to two days, and then stored in the refrigerator to develop its flavor.
Korean Soy Pickled Perilla Leaves
Kkaennip jangajji is a Korean soy-pickled perilla leaf side dish made by layering thoroughly dried leaves in a brine of boiled soy sauce, rice vinegar, and sugar with garlic and cheongyang chili. One of the most important steps is bringing the brine to a full boil and then allowing it to cool completely before pouring it over the leaves. Hot brine wilts the leaves immediately and collapses their structure, while a cooled brine preserves their shape and allows the seasoning to penetrate evenly over the resting period. The perilla's bold herbal fragrance becomes rounder and less sharp when it comes into contact with the salty depth of the soy sauce, and the vinegar prevents the saltiness from becoming overwhelming, keeping the finish clean and bright. Cheongyang chili leaves a quiet but definite heat at the back of each bite, and garlic threads a pungent undercurrent through the entire flavor profile. Wrapped around a spoonful of plain white rice, a single leaf delivers its full herbal, savory character in one mouthful, and the combination is one of the most satisfying pairings in Korean home cooking. Stored in the refrigerator, the pickled leaves keep for well over a month, making this one of the most practical side dishes to prepare in advance.
Korean Perilla Leaf Kimchi
Preparing kkaennip kimchi involves layering a seasoning mixture of soy sauce, Korean red chili flakes, minced garlic, and toasted sesame oil between individual perilla leaves. Unlike traditional cabbage kimchi, this version functions as an instant pickle that requires no fermentation period, making it ready to serve as soon as the assembly is finished. The sharp, herbal aroma of the raw perilla leaf softens when integrated with the toasted richness of sesame oil, while the chili flakes provide a controlled level of heat that complements rather than masks the natural characteristics of the leaves. Soy sauce establishes a savory and salty foundation, which is further elevated by the addition of finely chopped scallions. For a different visual result, using soup soy sauce produces a lighter color that allows the dark green hue of the perilla leaves to remain prominent. Small amounts of anchovy fish sauce can also be added to the marinade to introduce a complex layer of saltiness similar to fermented kimchi. This side dish maintains its quality well in the refrigerator throughout the week. While the seasonings are distinct and bright on the first day, the flavors fully penetrate the leaves after two or three days, resulting in a more integrated profile. The seasoned leaves are commonly draped over warm steamed rice or used as an aromatic alternative to lettuce when wrapping grilled meats. Because it requires few ingredients and minimal preparation time, it is a practical choice for home cooking.
Korean Cubed Radish Kimchi
Kkakdugi is a staple Korean kimchi made from radish cut into 2 cm cubes, brined in coarse salt, then seasoned with gochugaru, salted shrimp, garlic, and ginger before fermentation. Salting draws out moisture from the cubes, creating a contrast between the damp interior and the snappy outer surface. Salted shrimp layers its briny seafood depth beneath the chili heat, and as fermentation progresses, the radish's natural sugars emerge to balance the spice with a clean sweetness. Brining time should be kept to thirty minutes to one hour since over-salting softens the radish and robs it of its characteristic crunch. Adding a small drizzle of perilla oil during the seasoning step deepens the nutty undertone of the finished kimchi, and substituting grated pear or apple for sugar provides a gentler, fruit-derived sweetness that integrates more seamlessly into the overall flavor. The accumulated brine at the bottom of the jar develops a refreshing tang that makes kkakdugi the essential companion to rich, milky soups like seolleongtang and gomtang.
Korean Restaurant-Style Kkakdugi
Sikdang-style kkakdugi is the cubed radish kimchi served as a complimentary banchan at virtually every Korean restaurant, standing alongside baechu-kimchi as a permanent fixture on the Korean table. Cutting Korean radish into chunky 2 cm cubes preserves crunch deep into the flesh even after salting and fermentation. Twenty minutes in coarse salt draws out excess moisture, and the cubes are then coated in a seasoning mixture of gochugaru, anchovy fish sauce, garlic, ginger, and sugar. The fish sauce lays the umami foundation that develops further during fermentation, while ginger suppresses the raw edge of the radish and leaves a clean finish. One day at room temperature initiates lactic acid fermentation, producing the characteristic tingle of an active kimchi, after which refrigeration allows the flavor to mature steadily over two to three weeks. Winter radish carries more natural sugar, so the added sugar can be reduced without sacrificing sweetness. In summer, shortening the room-temperature rest to half a day before refrigerating prevents the kimchi from becoming overly sour. It pairs particularly well alongside grilled pork belly, rice noodle soup, and earthenware pot rice soup, where its acidity cuts through the richness of the main dish.
Korean Pickled Shishito Peppers
Kkwarigochu jangajji is a Korean pickled shishito pepper side dish made by pricking each pepper all over with a toothpick, blanching briefly in salted boiling water for thirty to sixty seconds, and submerging them with sliced garlic and optional cheongyang chili in a brine of soy sauce, vinegar, and sugar brought to a boil. Pricking the peppers before blanching ensures the brine penetrates evenly through the hollow interior, eliminating any difference in seasoning between the skin and the flesh inside. Blanching for only thirty seconds to one minute wilts the peppers just enough to make them pliable while keeping a firm, springy bite and their natural mild heat. Pouring the brine hot, then letting the jar cool before refrigerating, helps the peppers hold their green color rather than browning. Vinegar cuts through the saltiness of the soy sauce and prevents the pickle from tasting heavy, while sugar smooths the sharpness into a balanced, clean finish. Ready after at least one day of refrigeration and keeps well for over a week, making it a reliable banchan to have on hand when the weeknight table needs one more dish.
Korean Kohlrabi Soy Pickle
Kohlrabi jangajji is a Korean soy pickle made by thickly peeling kohlrabi, cutting it into 2 cm cubes, and submerging the pieces with garlic and dried chili in a pickling brine of boiled soy sauce, vinegar, and sugar. Kohlrabi's dense cellular structure absorbs the brine slowly, holding a firmer crunch and more pronounced sweetness than radish over several days of pickling. The soy sauce's savory depth and the vinegar's acidity draw out the kohlrabi's natural sugars, while dried chili contributes a subtle warmth and color to the brine. Pouring the brine only after it has fully cooled preserves the kohlrabi's crunch, as hot liquid softens the cell walls and reduces the staying power of the pickle. This pickle works well as a palate cleanser alongside grilled meat or samgyeopsal, cutting through richness with its tart, sweet bite, and stored in the refrigerator it holds its crisp texture for two to three weeks. Adjusting the ratio of vinegar to sugar in the brine shifts the pickle toward more sour or more sweet depending on preference.
Nasu no Koji-zuke (Eggplant Pickled with Rice Koji)
Nasu no koji-zuke is a southern Akita pickle of firm small eggplants layered with steamed rice, active rice koji, salt, coarse sugar, shochu, and dried chili, then matured under refrigeration for one month. This batch uses 6kg eggplants and makes about 60 portions, so begin by sanitizing the food-safe vessel, lid, weight plate, and tongs and drying them completely. Select only sound, firm eggplants without damaged or soft areas. Wash and dry them, then rub 20g food-grade alum over every surface. Do not use industrial alum or a product of uncertain identity. Spread the fruit on clean mesh in a shaded, ventilated place for 3 to 6 hours, turning it halfway. Once the surfaces are dry, rinse away excess alum quickly under running water and dry the eggplants thoroughly with a clean cloth. Rinse 1.5kg rice, soak it for 1 hour, and drain for 30 minutes. Steam it for 35 to 45 minutes until cooked through, then spread it on a sanitized tray and cool it to 35C or below. This cooling step protects the koji enzymes from excessive heat. Combine the cooled rice with 1.5kg active rice koji, 900g salt, 1.25kg coarse sugar, and 200ml shochu at 25 percent alcohol or higher. Layer the rice mixture, eggplants, and dried chilies cut to 5mm in the vessel, finishing with enough mixture to cover the fruit completely. Overlap 12 food-grade bamboo leaves on top, add the sanitized plate, and apply at least 12kg of sanitized weight. Keep the vessel at 4C or colder throughout maturation. When brine rises above the eggplants and rice mixture, reduce the weight to about 6kg but keep all contents below the liquid. After one month, remove a piece with clean tongs and inspect the batch. If mold, a putrid odor, or abnormal slime appears, do not taste it and discard all of it.
Korean Kohlrabi Kimchi (Cubed Gochugaru Fermented Crisp)
Kolrabi kimchi is made by cutting kohlrabi into 2 cm cubes, brining them in coarse salt, then mixing with gochugaru, fish sauce, minced garlic, and plum syrup before fermentation. Kohlrabi has lower moisture content and a denser cellular structure than Korean radish, which means its crunch holds up through days of fermentation without softening into mush. The brining step draws internal moisture out of the kohlrabi while driving salt evenly into the tissue, and this stage must be completed thoroughly so that seasoning can penetrate all the way through during fermentation. Kohlrabi's natural sweetness creates a clear contrast against the heat of gochugaru, adding textural depth to the flavor profile. Fish sauce builds the savory fermented foundation, while plum syrup contributes both acidity and sweetness to keep the overall seasoning in balance. Eaten immediately after mixing, the kimchi tastes fresh and light, similar to a dressed salad. After one to two days at room temperature or three to four days in the refrigerator, the umami deepens noticeably and the characteristic tang of fermentation emerges. It works well as a substitute for kkakdugi alongside rice and grilled meats.
Korean Soybean Leaf Kimchi
Kongip kimchi is a Korean preserved kimchi made by coating individual soybean leaves, one by one, with a seasoning of gochugaru, dark soy sauce, anchovy fish sauce, and plum syrup, then stacking them in layers to ferment. The soybean leaf's earthy, vegetal fragrance is its defining quality in the fresh state, but it transforms into something considerably deeper and more savory once it meets the concentrated umami of soy and fermented fish sauce and begins to mature over several days. Onion and ginger are worked into the seasoning to suppress any raw edge and reinforce the overall aroma. Plum syrup tames the inherent sharpness of the salt and fish sauce with a gentle fruit acidity that rounds the flavor, ensuring that each leaf pulled from the jar tastes balanced rather than overwhelming. The traditional way to eat it is draped over a bowl of warm rice and folded around a mouthful, the salty-spicy leaf acting as both wrap and condiment. When the kimchi is particularly salty after a long fermentation, a brief toss in sesame oil softens the intensity and adds a warm, nutty note. Made in late autumn while the leaves are still young and tender before the first frost, this kimchi keeps for weeks in the refrigerator and deepens in flavor throughout the season.
Soybean Leaf Water Kimchi
Soybean leaf water kimchi ferments young raw soybean leaves in a clear broth made with cooled glutinous-rice paste, pear, garlic, ginger, salt, and sliced red chili. The leaves are used fresh rather than blanched or pre-salted, which preserves their green aroma and firm structure. Wash them one by one, drain them, and arrange them in tidy bundles so they can be packed into the container and lifted out easily later. Dissolve the rice flour in part of the water and cook it gently into a thin paste, then let it cool completely. Pouring warm paste over raw leaves can soften them prematurely and disturb the intended start of fermentation. Blend pear, garlic, and ginger with a little water and strain the mixture through cloth, using only the clear juice. Removing the pulp keeps the broth visually clean and prevents bits of aromatics from collecting between the leaves. Combine the cooled paste, strained juice, salt, sliced red chili, and remaining water, then pour until every leaf stays below the liquid. Leave the covered container at room temperature for one day before moving it to the refrigerator for slower maturation. As it rests, the fresh bean-leaf aroma remains present while pear adds restrained sweetness and garlic and ginger give the cool broth a sharper edge. To serve, separate a bundle into individual leaves for rice and ladle some of the chilled broth alongside.
Korean Soy-Marinated Soybean Leaves
Kongnip-jangajji is soybean leaves preserved in a seasoned soy brine - one of the two major leaf jangajji traditions alongside perilla leaf (kkaennip) jangajji. Soybean leaves are larger and thicker than perilla leaves, taking longer to absorb the pickling liquid but offering a more substantial chew, with each leaf large enough to wrap around a spoonful of rice. The brine - soy sauce, water, vinegar, and sugar boiled together - must cool completely before pouring over the leaves; hot liquid softens them into a limp state, destroying the desired texture. Garlic cloves, cheongyang chili, and onion slices added to the jar infuse the brine with aromatic complexity during the curing process, producing a more layered flavor than plain soy. A minimum of two days of refrigerated aging is needed for the seasoning to reach the leaf interior, and flipping the layers once daily ensures even penetration. The most common way to eat it is draped over hot steamed rice, ssam-style.
Madaka-zuke (Dried Daikon, Soybean, and Squid Pickle)
Madaka-zuke is a Miyazaki pickle of quickly rinsed dried daikon mixed with carrot, ginger, kombu, toasted dried squid, and roasted soybeans, then soaked in a sweet soy and vinegar dressing. Its name is said to echo impatient calls asking whether it is ready yet. Miyazaki is a major dried-daikon region, where winter wind and strong southern sunlight turn fresh strips into a concentrated pantry ingredient. The finished pickle brings crisp vegetables, chewy seafood, and nutty beans together and is served chilled after refrigerated resting.
Korean Green Plum Pickles
Maesil jangajji is a traditional Korean green plum pickle made by salting unripe plums to draw out bitterness, layering them with sugar, and pouring in vinegar and rice wine for months of aging. Over the long curing process, the plum's sharp acidity gradually harmonizes with the sugar's sweetness, and the flesh condenses as moisture evaporates, concentrating its floral aroma. Vinegar stabilizes the fermentation while rice wine smooths any harsh notes, resulting in a pickle that is tart, sweet, and cleanly fragrant. A couple of pieces placed beside a bowl of rice stimulate the appetite with their bright acidity, making this a Korean summer preserve with a long tradition. The best time to prepare it is early June when young green plums come to market, and stored in glass jars in a cool spot the pickle keeps well for over a year.
Korean Pickled Garlic (Soy-Vinegar Aged Whole Cloves)
Maneul-jangajji is whole garlic cloves pickled in a soy-vinegar brine, a traditional Korean preserved banchan that sits near-permanently in the kimchi refrigerator alongside kimjang kimchi. The customary practice is to make it during the June fresh garlic harvest and eat it throughout the year, replenishing the supply annually. After three or more months submerged in the brine, every trace of the raw garlic's sharp, pungent bite disappears, leaving behind a clove that has become almost translucent, with a jelly-firm texture and a clean salty-sweet flavor with no heat at all. The baseline ratio for the brine is two parts soy sauce to one part vinegar. Increasing the vinegar beyond that ratio tips the flavor too far toward sourness, making the pickles difficult to eat alongside rice as a general banchan. The brine must be brought to a full boil and cooled completely before it is poured over the garlic - never hot, which would partially cook the cloves. Repeating the cycle of draining the brine, reboiling it, cooling it, and returning it to the jar every three days for three complete cycles significantly extends shelf life and builds a more layered depth of flavor than a single pouring achieves. Skipping this process results in a noticeably flatter pickle. After three days at room temperature to initiate fermentation, the jar moves to the refrigerator, where the lower temperature slows the process and preserves the characteristic crunch for months. The finished pickles are eaten one clove at a time alongside grilled pork belly or short ribs, where their acidity cuts through the fat. Minced finely and stirred into fried rice, they contribute a concentrated umami that is difficult to replicate with raw garlic.
Korean Garlic Scape Soy Pickles
Maneul jong jangajji is a Korean garlic scape pickle made by cutting fresh scapes into 5 cm lengths, packing them into a sterilized jar along with cheongyang chili peppers, and pouring over a freshly boiled brine of soy sauce, vinegar, sugar, and dried kelp. The scapes' sharp garlic bite melds gradually with the soy's salty, savory depth to produce a flavor that builds with every chew, while the kelp dissolves a subtle seaweed umami into the brine over the course of steeping. The vinegar keeps the salt in check so the overall taste stays clean rather than heavy, and the cheongyang chili adds a slow, lingering warmth at the end of each bite that prevents the pickle from tasting one-dimensional. Reboiling the brine and pouring it back over the scapes after two days is an important step for both preservation and even pickling, and repeating this process once more ensures the scapes absorb flavor uniformly throughout. Handled this way, the finished banchan keeps reliably for over a month in the refrigerator.
Korean Garlic Scape Kimchi
Maneul jong kimchi is a garlic scape kimchi made by lightly brining freshly harvested scapes, then dressing them in a seasoning paste of gochugaru, fish sauce, and plum syrup blended with pureed onion and pear. The scapes' sharp, piercing garlic aroma does not diminish through fermentation - it persists alongside the stems' crisp bite, delivering alternating pulses of heat and umami that build with each chew. Pear works into the base to introduce a fruit sweetness that blunts the chili intensity, while fish sauce provides the fermented backbone that grounds the entire kimchi. Trimming the fibrous bottoms before seasoning produces a more uniform snap throughout. Leaving the jar at room temperature for roughly two days allows the flavors to integrate and mellow into balance before refrigerating. This is a seasonal kimchi made only in spring when garlic scapes appear in the market, and its combination of raw green pungency and assertive garlic heat sets it apart from any other variety in the Korean kimchi repertoire.
Korean Pickled Garlic Scapes
Maneuljjong-jangajji is a preserved side dish of garlic scapes pickled in a boiled soy sauce, vinegar, and sugar brine. The preservation principle is identical to that of whole garlic jangajji, but the scape, meaning the flowering stalk of the garlic plant, is used instead of the bulb, and there is one crucial technique difference. The scapes are cut into 4 cm lengths, packed tightly into glass jars, and covered with the brine immediately while it is still boiling hot. The heat partially cooks the outer layer of each scape, which creates a clean, crisp snap when the scape is bitten, unlike the soft texture that results from the cold-pour method used for whole garlic. Whole black peppercorns included in the jar release their warmth and spicy aroma slowly into the liquid during the aging period, adding a dimension beyond the straightforward salt-and-acid base. The pickles are ready after a single day, but day three is when seasoning has penetrated to the center while the scapes still push back satisfyingly under the teeth. The brine can be drained, reboiled, and poured back over the scapes once during storage, which significantly extends shelf life by suppressing bacterial growth. On the Korean table, these sharp, vinegary pickles serve as a natural counterbalance to fatty meat dishes, cutting through richness and clearing the palate between bites.
Matsumae-zuke Dried Squid and Kombu Pickle
Matsumae-zuke is a southern Hokkaido preserve of finely shredded dried squid, kombu, and salted herring roe cured in soy sauce, sake, and mirin until the kombu releases its characteristic viscosity. It is said to have begun in the Matsumae domain with local seafood. During the great herring fisheries, plentiful roe was used generously; as roe later became expensive, squid and kombu took a larger role. It remains a winter and New Year staple. To handle the traditional week-long cure conservatively at home, this version uses commercial ready-to-eat dried seafood and prepared salted roe, boils and rapidly chills the seasoning, packs it in sanitized equipment, and keeps it continuously at 4°C or colder.
Butterbur Stem Jangajji
Butterbur stem jangajji prepares 500 g stems by blanching and soaking them, then covers them with a hot soy, vinegar, and sugar brine for four servings. Pull the tough outer fibers down the length of each stem to remove them thoroughly. Blanch the peeled stems for 5 minutes, soak them in cold water for 1 hour to reduce their acrid taste, drain, and cut them into even 5 cm pieces. Thinly slice 50 g garlic and chop 30 g green chili. For the pickling liquid, combine 400 ml water, 300 ml soy sauce, 200 ml vinegar, 200 g sugar, and 5 g kelp. Boil for 5 minutes, checking that the sugar is fully dissolved. Pack the butterbur, garlic, and chili tightly into a glass jar that has been sanitized with boiling water and dried completely. Pour the brine over the vegetables while it is still hot, making sure the stems are submerged. Let the steam subside, close the lid, keep the jar at room temperature for one day, and then mature it in the refrigerator for two days. Using the brine hot rather than cooling it first is the recipe's method for retaining a firm bite. After maturation, use a clean utensil to remove only the portion needed.
Butterbur Stem Kimchi
Butterbur stem kimchi prepares 600 g stems by boiling and soaking them before coating them in a red pepper and anchovy fish sauce seasoning for four servings. Peel away the tough fibrous skin, boil the stems for 7 minutes in salted water, and move them to cold water for 30 minutes to reduce their acrid taste. Cut the drained stems into 5 cm pieces and remove excess surface water. Cook 10 g glutinous rice flour with 100 ml water, stirring until it becomes a thin paste, then cool it completely. Combine that cold paste with 40 g red chili powder, 30 ml anchovy fish sauce, 15 g minced garlic, 5 g minced ginger, and 10 g sugar. Cut 50 g scallions to roughly the same length as the butterbur and mix them into the seasoning first. Add the prepared stems and turn them through the paste until every side is coated, without squeezing hard enough to break their structure. Pack the kimchi into an airtight container, let it ferment at room temperature for half a day, and then refrigerate it. The specified 7-minute boil and 30-minute cold soak are both part of the preparation: the first softens the fibrous stems, while the second draws out more of the sharp taste before seasoning.
About Kimchi
The fermentation process creates beneficial probiotics and a depth of umami unique to kimchi. Seasonal produce transformed into kimchi and pickles keeps for weeks, making them a constant presence in Korean refrigerators.